Ziaeian B, Fonarow GC. Epidemiology and aetiology of heart failure. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2016;13:368–78.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Bradshaw D, Groenewald P, Laubscher R, Nannan N, Nojilana B, Norman R, et al. Initial burden of disease estimates for South Africa, 2000 : original article. Samj. 2003.
Bhatia RS, Tu JV, Lee DS, Austin PC, Fang J, Haouzi A, et al. Outcome of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction in a population-based study. N Engl J Med. 2006. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa051530.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, Arnett DK, Blaha MJ, Cushman M, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2015 update : a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000152.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Lee DS, Gona P, Vasan RS, Larson MG, Benjamin EJ, Wang TJ, et al. Relation of disease pathogenesis and risk factors to heart failure with preserved or reduced ejection fraction: Insights from the framingham heart study of the national heart, lung, and blood institute. Circulation. 2009. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.815944.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Steyn K, Damasceno A. Lifestyle and related risk factors for chronic diseases. 2006.
Rayner B. Hypertension: Detection and management in South Africa. Nephron - Clinical Practice. 2010.
Maredza M, Bertram MY, Tollman SM. Disease burden of stroke in rural South Africa: An estimate of incidence, mortality and disability adjusted life years. BMC Neurol. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-015-0311-7.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Hitzeroth J, Mpe M, Klug E, Ranjith N, Sliwa K, Steingo L, et al. 2020 Heart Failure Society of South Africa perspective on the 2016 European Society of Cardiology Chronic Heart Failure Guidelines. S Afr Med J. 2020;110:13057.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Szymanski PZ, Badri M, Mayosi BM. Clinical characteristics and causes of heart failure, adherence to treatment guidelines, and mortality of patients with acute heart failure: experience at Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa. South Afr Med J. 2018;108:94–8.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Bots ML, Nikitin Y, Salonen JT, Elwood PC, Malyutina S, FreiredeConcalves A, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy and risk of fatal and non-fatal stroke. EUROSTROKE: a collaborative study among research centres in Europe. J Epidemiol Commun Health. 2002;56(1):8.
Article
Google Scholar
Ranganai E, Matizirofa L. An analysis of recent stroke cases in South Africa: trend, seasonality and predictors. S Afr Med J. 2020;110:92–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Alpert MA, Karthikeyan K, Abdullah O, Ghadban R. Obesity and cardiac remodeling in adults: mechanisms and clinical implications. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2018;61:114–23.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Castelli WP. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the framingham heart study. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1561–6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Levy D, Anderson KM, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Christiansen JC, Castelli WP. Echocardiographically detected left ventricular hypertrophy: prevalence and risk factors. The Framingham heart study. Ann Internal Med. 1988;108:7–13.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Wright GA, Ang DS, Stonebridge PA, Belch JJ, Struthers AD. Left ventricular hypertrophy is present in one-half of newly-diagnosed peripheral arterial disease patients. J Hypertens. 2007;25:463–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Katholi RE, Couri DM. Left ventricular hypertrophy: Major risk factor in patients with hypertension: Update and practical clinical applications. Int J Hypertens. 2011;2011:1–10.
Article
Google Scholar
Schirmer H, Lunde P, Rasmussen K. Prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy in a general population. Tromso Study Eur Heart J. 1999;20:429–38.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Baldo MP, Gonçalves MA, Capingana DP, Magalhães P, da Silva ABT, Mill JG. Prevalence and clinical correlates of left ventricular hypertrophy in black Africans. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev. 2018;25:283–9.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Brady TM. The role of obesity in the development of left ventricular hypertrophy among children and adolescents. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2016;18:1–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Devereux RB, Wachtell K, Gerdts E, Boman K, Nieminen MS, Papademetriou V, et al. Prognostic significance of left ventricular mass change during treatment of hypertension. J Am Med Assoc. 2004;292:2350–6.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Pierdomenico S, … DL-A journal of, 2008 undefined. Regression of echocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy after 2 years of therapy reduces cardiovascular risk in patients with essential hypertension. academic.oup.com. 2008. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajh.2008.2.
Fagard RH, Celis H, Thijs L, Wouters S. Regression of left ventricular mass by antihypertensive treatment: a meta-analysis of randomized comparative studies. Hypertension. 2009;54:1084–91.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Lønnebakken MT, Izzo R, Mancusi C, Gerdts E, Losi MA, Canciello G, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy regression during antihypertensive treatment in an outpatient clinic (the Campania salute network). J Am Heart Assoc. 2017;6:e004152.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Messerli FH, Ketelhut R. Left ventricular hypertrophy: an independent risk factor - PubMed. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1991;17 Suppl 4:S59–66; discussion S66–7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1726010/. Accessed 26 Feb 2021.
Woodiwiss AJ, Norton GR. Obesity and left ventricular hypertrophy: the hypertension connection. Curr Hypertens Reports. 2015;17:539.
Park SK, Moon K, Ryoo JH, Oh CM, Choi JM, Kang JG, et al. The association between alcohol consumption and left ventricular diastolic function and geometry change in general Korean population. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;19:271–8.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
National Department of Health (NDoH), Statistics South Africa (Stats SA), South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) and I, Survey H. South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016: Key Indicators. 2017.
Reddy P, Zuma K, Shisana O, Jonas K, Sewpaul R. Prevalence of tobacco use among adults in South Africa: Results from the first South African national health and Nutrition Examination Survey. S Afr Med J. 2015;105:648–55.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bedeker WF, Lachman AS, Borkum M, Hellenberg D, Cupido CS. Impact of transthoracic echocardiography at district hospital level. S Afr Med J. 2015;105:817–22.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Richter L, Norris S, Pettifor J, Yach D, Cameron N. Europe PMC Funders Group Cohort Profile : Mandela ’ s children : The 1990 birth to twenty study in South Africa. Int J Epidemiol. 2007;36:504–11.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Palipudi KM, Morton J, Hsia J, Andes L, Asma S, Talley B, Caixeta RD, Fouad H, Khoury RN, Ramanandraibe N, Rarick J, Sinha DN, Pujari S, Tursan d'Espaignet E; [On behalf of the GATS Collaborative Group]. Methodology of the Global Adult Tobacco Survey - 2008-2010. Glob Health Promot. 2016;23(2 Suppl):3–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757975913499800.
Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF, de la Fuente JR, Grant M. Development of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption-II. Addiction. 1993;88:791–804.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Cleland CL, Hunter RF, Kee F, Cupples ME, Sallis JF, Tully MA. Validity of the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) in assessing levels and change in moderate-vigorous physical activity and sedentary behaviour. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:1–11.
Article
Google Scholar
de Onis M, Garza C, Victora CG, Onyango AW, Frongillo EA, Martines J. The WHO multicentre growth reference study: planning, study design, and methodology. Food Nutr Bull. 2004;25(1 SUPPL. 1):15–26.
Article
Google Scholar
Meng L, Zhao D, Pan Y, Ding W, Wei Q, Li H, et al. Validation of Omron HBP-1300 professional blood pressure monitor based on auscultation in children and adults. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2016;16:1–5.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Unger T, Borghi C, Charchar F, Khan NA, Poulter NR, Prabhakaran D, et al. International society of hypertension global hypertension practice guidelines. Hypertension. 2020;2020:1334–57.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Orsinelli DA, Armour A, De Cara J, Fey B, Frommelt P, Lopez-Mattei J, et al. The American society of echocardiography recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification in adults. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2015;28:1–39.
Article
Google Scholar
Simpson JM, Savis A, Rawlins D, Qureshi S, Sinha MD. Incidence of left ventricular hypertrophy in children with kidney disease: Impact of method of indexation of left ventricular mass. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2010;11:271–7.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
WHO/Europe | Nutrition - Body mass index - BMI. https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/disease-prevention/nutrition/a-healthy-lifestyle/body-mass-index-bmi. Accessed 1 Jul 2020.
WHO. Body mass index-for-age (BMI-for-age). https://www.who.int/toolkits/child-growth-standards/standards/body-mass-index-for-age-bmi-for-age. Accessed 17 Mar 2021.
Flynn JT, Falkner BE. New clinical practice guideline for the management of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Hypertension. 2017;70:683–6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Kim JH. Multicollinearity and misleading statistical results. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2019;72:558–69.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Kamath S, Markham D, Drazner MH. Increased prevalence of concentric left ventricular hypertrophy in African-Americans: Will an epidemic of heart failure follow? Heart Fail Rev. 2006;11:271–7.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Maseko MJ, Woodiwiss AJ, Libhaber CD, Brooksbank R, Majane OHI, Norton GR. Relations between white coat effects and left ventricular mass index or arterial stiffness: role of nocturnal blood pressure dipping. Am J Hypertens. 2013;26:1287–94.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Libhaber CD, Norton GR, Maseko MJ, Majane OHI, Millen AME, Maunganidze F, et al. Relationship between inappropriate left ventricular hypertrophy and ejection fraction independent of absolute or indexed mass in a community sample of black African ancestry. J Hypertens. 2013;31:169–76.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Isaac Kofi O, Emmanuel AA. Determinants of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertensive patients seen in a teaching hospital in Ghana. J Hypertens Open Access. 2017;06:1–7.
Article
Google Scholar
Willey BA, Cameron N, Norris SA, Pettifor JM, Griffiths PL. Socio-economic predictors of stunting in preschool children—a population-based study from Johannesburg and Soweto. S Afr Med J. 2009. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.2652.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Nyati LH, Pettifor JM, Norris SA. The prevalence of malnutrition and growth percentiles for urban South African children. BMC Public Health. 2019;19:1–13.
Article
Google Scholar
Drazner MH. The progression of hypertensive heart disease. Circulation. 2011;123:327–34.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Aronow WS. Hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. Ann Transl Med. 2016;5(15):310. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm.2017.06.14.
Article
Google Scholar
Horwich TB, Fonarow GC. Glucose, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes. Relevance to incidence of heart failure. J Am College Cardiol. 2010;55:283–93.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Hamzeh N, Ghadimi F, Farzaneh R, Hosseini SK. Obesity, heart failure, and obesity paradox. J Tehran Univ Heart Center. 2017;12:1–5.
Google Scholar
Vasan RS, Larson MG, Leip EP, Evans JC, O’Donnell CJ, Kannel WB, et al. Impact of high-normal blood pressure on the risk of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1291–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
National Department of Health (NDoH), Statistics South Africa (Stats SA), South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) and I. South Africa Demographic andd Health Survey 2016. 2019.
Alpert MA, Lavie CJ, Agrawal H, Aggarwal KB, Kumar SA. Obesity and heart failure: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management. Transl Res. 2014;164:345–56.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Nauta JF, Hummel YM, Tromp J, Ouwerkerk W, van der Meer P, Jin X, et al. Concentric vs. eccentric remodelling in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: clinical characteristics, pathophysiology and response to treatment. Eur J Heart Failure. 2020;22(7):1147–55.
Avelar E, Cloward TV, Walker JM, Farney RJ, Strong M, Pendleton RC, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy in severe obesity: interactions among blood pressure, nocturnal hypoxemia, and body mass. Hypertension. 2007;49:34–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Aurigemma GP, De Simone G, Fitzgibbons TP. Cardiac remodeling in obesity. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2013;6:142–52.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Woodiwiss AJ, Libhaber CD, Majane OHI, Libhaber E, Maseko M, Norton GR. Obesity promotes left ventricular concentric rather than eccentric geometric remodeling and hypertrophy independent of blood pressure. Am J Hypertens. 2008;21:1144–51.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Fidelix MP, Tanni SE, Roscani MG, Mesquita CB, Schelini KNdM, Polegato BF, et al. Vitamin D role in smoking women and cardiac remodeling. Nutrire. 2016;41:1–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Bullen C. Impact of tobacco smoking and smoking cessation on cardiovascular risk and disease. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2008;6:883–95.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Leigh JA, Kaplan RC, Swett K, Balfour P, Kansal MM, Talavera GA, et al. Smoking intensity and duration is associated with cardiac structure and function: The ECHOcardiographic Study of Hispanics/Latinos. Open Heart. 2017;4:1–12.
Article
Google Scholar
Kaplan A, Abidi E, Ghali R, Booz GW, Kobeissy F, Zouein FA. Functional, cellular, and molecular remodeling of the heart under influence of oxidative cigarette tobacco smoke. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2017;2017.
Boerstra BA, Soepnel LM, Nicolaou V, Kolkenbeck-Ruh A, Kagura J, Ware LJ, et al. The impact of maternal hyperglycaemia first detected in pregnancy on offspring blood pressure in Soweto, South Africa. J Hypertens. 2022;40:969–77.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Matjuda EN, Sewani-Rusike CR, Anye SNC, Engwa GA, Nkeh-Chungag BN. Relationship between high blood pressure and microalbuminuria in children aged 6–9 years in a South African population. Children. 2020;7:131.
Article
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Song P, Zhang Y, Yu J, Zha M, Zhu Y, Rahimi K, et al. Global prevalence of hypertension in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2019;173:1154–63.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Jin Y, Kuznetsova T, Bochud M, Richart T, Thijs L, Cusi D, et al. Heritability of left ventricular structure and function in Caucasian families. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2011;12:326–32.
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Post WS, Larson MG, Myers RH, Galderisi M, Levy D. Heritability of left ventricular mass. Hypertension. 1997;30:1025–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Roush GC, Abdelfattah R, Song S, Ernst ME, Sica DA, Kostis JB. Hydrochlorothiazide vs chlorthalidone, indapamide, and potassium-sparing/hydrochlorothiazide diuretics for reducing left ventricular hypertrophy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Hypertens. 2018;20:1507–15.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Pierdomenico SD, Cuccurullo F. Risk reduction after regression of echocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertension: a meta-analysis. Am J Hypertens. 2010;23:876–81.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar