Table 1 General characteristics of included studies

1

Zhang (2019) [74]

USA

Urban

Cohort

census

9521

BMI

20–60

8/10

2

Vaccaro (2019) [68].

USA

-

cross-sectional

Random

42,828

BMI

10–17

7/9

3

Astell-Burt (2014) [136]

Australia

-

cross-sectional

Random

246, 920

BMI

45–106

45 ≤

7/9

4

U. Goldsby (2016) [55]

USA

Urban

Cohort

A convenience samples

1443

BMI

< 19

9/10

5

Alexander(2013) [50]

USA

-

cross-sectional

Random-digit-dialing

44 278

Obesity

6–17

7/9

6

Bai(2013) [51]

USA

-

cross-sectional

Census

3,906

BMI

18–63

6/9

7

Bell(2008) [52]

USA

Urban

cohort

Census

3831

BMI

3–16

8/10

8

Bird(2016) [76]

Canada

Urban

Cohort

Census

380

Obesity

8–10

9/10

9

Burgoine(2015) [91]

UK

Urban

cross-sectional

Base line data

94

BMI

5–11

7/9

10

Dadvand(2014) [105]

Spain

Urban

cross-sectional

Random

3,178

sedentary behavior, obesity, asthma, and allergy

9–12

8/9

11

Davidson(2010) [77]

Canada

Urban & Rural (Urban = 47.2

Town = 16.1

Rural = 36.7)

-

Random

148

Body weights

Students grade 5

-

12

Gose(2013) [98]

Germany

-

-

Data were collected as part of the Kiel Obesity Prevention Study

485

weight status

age at baseline:

6.1 (5.8–6.4)

-

13

Assis (2018) [145]

Brazil

-

cross-sectional

Census

408

Overweight

6–15

6/9

14

Hobbs(2018) [92]

UK

Urban & Rural

(Urban = 88.60

Rural = 11.40)

cross-sectional

Yorkshire Health Study

22,889

BMI

18–86

8/9

15

Klompmaker(2018) [99]

Dutch

Urban & Rural (very highly urbanized = 15

highly urbanized = 25

moderately urbanized

= 18

low urbanized

= 23

not urbanized =

19)

cross-sectional

using data from a Dutch national health survey

387,195

Overweight

≥ 19

7/9

16

Lovasi(2011) [61]

USA

Urban

cross-sectional

Census

428

Adiposity

2–5

7/9

17

Manandhar(2019) [125]

Nepal

Urban

cross-sectional

Random

440

Overweight/ Obesity

6–13

7/9

18

Mathis(2017) [62]

USA

Urban

cross-sectional

Census

217

BMI

65+

6/9

19

Mena(2014) [146]

Chile

Urban

cross-sectional

Random

832

BMI

18–74

7/9

20

Mendes(2013) [147]

Brazil

Urban

cross-sectional

Random

3404

Overweight

18 ≤

6/9

21

Hughey(2017) [162]

USA

-

cross-sectional

Census

13,469

Obesity

3rd–5th

grade

7/9

22

Grit Müller (2018) [100]

Germany

Urban

cross-sectional

Census

1312

BMI/T2DM

25–74

7/9

23

Nicolle-Mir (2018) [107]

Lithuania.

Unknown

cross-sectional

Data used from cohort study

1489

Overweight

4–6

8/9

24

Nies(2015) [79]

Idaho

Urban& Rural

Retrospective base EHR

Census

9800

Obesity

18–105

7/10

25

Picavet(2016) [90]

Netherlands

Urban &Rural

cross-sectional and longitudinal

Random

4005

Height, weight, blood pressure

20–59

8/9

26

Potestio (2009) [80]

Canada

Urban

cross-sectional

Census

6,772

Overweight/Obesity

3–8

8/9

27

Potwarka(2008) [81]

Canada

-

-

Random

108

Weight Status

2–17

-

28

Putrik(2015) [102]

Netherlands

-

cross-sectional

-

9771

Overweight/Obesity

18–65

7/9

29

Rossi(2018) [149]

Brazil

-

cross-sectional

Random

2,152

BMI

7–14

8/9

30

Rundle(2013) [65]

USA

-

cross-sectional

Census

13,102

BMI

-

8/9

31

Schüle(2016) [101]

Germany

-

cross-sectional

Census

3499

Overweight

5–7

6/9

32

Singh(2010) [66]

USA

-

cross-sectional

Random

44,101

Obesity

10–17

7/9

33

Sullivan(2014) [67]

USA

-

cross-sectional

Census

6082

Obesity

≥ 18

7/9

34

Toftager(2011) [103]

Denmark

Urban

cross-sectional

Census

14,566

Physical activity

≥ 16

6/9

35

van der Zwaard(2018) [93]

UK

-

Cohort

-

6001

BMI

3–11

8/10

36

Veitch(2016) [69]

Australia

Urban & Rural,

40 Urban area)

cross-sectional

Random

1848

Overweight and Obesity

33.5- 50.0

7/9

USA

489

Overweight and Obesity

43.7-

57.1

7/9

37

Velásquez-Meléndez(2013) [150]

Brazil

Urban

cross-sectional

Random

3,425

Overweight and Obesity

18–65

8/9

38

Veugelers (2008) [82]

Canada

Urban &Rural (Urban = 55 and Rural = 45)

-

-

5 200

Diet, Physical activity and Overweight

10–11

-

39

Wall(2012) [70]

USA

Urban/ suburban

cross-sectional

-

2682

Obesity

Mean age 14.5

7/9

40

Wen(2012) [71]

USA

Urban

cross-sectional

census

2000

Obesity

20–64

7/9

41

Wolch(2011) [72]

USA

Urban

cohort

Random

3173

Obesity

9–10

7/10

42

Yang(2018) [73]

USA

Urban

cross-sectional

census

41,283

Overweight and Obesity

3–18

7/9

43

Nesbit(2014) [63]

USA

-

cross-sectional

Random

39,542

Obesity

11 to 17

7/9

44

Pereira(2018) [106]

Portugal

Urban

-

Census

929

Obesity

Mean (± SD)

7.28 (± 1.94)

-

45

Akpinar(2017) [126]

Turkey

Urban

Cross-sectional

Census

422

Physical activity/Screen time/General health/Overweight

Children

1–18

7/9

46

Benjamin-Neelon (2019) [75]

Mexico

-

Cohort

Random

102

BMI

children

3–5

9/10

47

Bjork (2008) [108]

Sweden

Urban

Cross-sectional

Census

24,819

Physical activity, Obesity and Wellbeing

18–80

7/9

48

Brown(2009) [53]

USA

-

Cross-sectional

Census

5000

BMI, overweight, and obesity

25–64

7/9

49

Browning and

Rigolon (2018) [54]

USA

Urban

Cross-sectional

Census

97,574,613

Obesity and Mental health

> 18

8/9

50

Coombes (2010) [95]

UK

Urban

Cross-sectional

Census

6821

Physical activity and Overweight

> 16

7/9

51

Cummins and

Fagg (2012) [96]

UK

Urban &Rural (Urban = 80.3, Town = 9.5, village = 10.2)

Cross-sectional

Random

79,136

Weight status

> 18

7/9

52

Dempsey(2018) [109]

Ireland

Urban

Cross-sectional

Census

8175

Obesity

≥ 50

6/9

53

Ellaway

(2005) [97]

UK

-

Cross-sectional

Census

6919

Obesity

Adults age not mentioned

8/9

54

Feng (2018) [138]

Australia

Urban &Rural

(Urban = 12.9, regional = 11.1 and Rural = 12.2)

Cohort

Census

3843

Obesity

Mothers age not mentioned

7/10

55

Hoehner

(2012) [56]

USA

-

Cross-sectional

Random

8857

Cardiorespiratory fitness

20–88

7/9

56

James

(2017) [57]

USA

Urban &Rural (Urban = 98.8

Small town& Rural = 1.1)

Cross-sectional

Random

23,435

BMI

60–87

7/9

57

Li (2008) [58]

USA

Urban

Cross-sectional

Random

1221

Adiposity, and Physical activity

50–75

7/9

58

Li (2018) [59]

USA

Urban

Cross-sectional

-

149,797

BMI

18–84

7/9

59

Liu (2007) [60]

USA

Urban &Rural

Cross-sectional

Census

7334

Overweight

Children

3–18

7/9

60

Mowafi

(2012) [127]

Egypt

Urban

Cross-sectional

-

3546

BMI

≥ 22

6/9

61

Nielsen and

Hansen (2007) [104]

Denmark

Urban

Cross-sectional

Random

2000

Obesity, Overweight,

Mental stress, Physical activity

18–80

7/9

62

Norman (2006) [64]

USA

-

Cross-sectional

-

789

Physical activity and BMI

Children

11–15

7/9

63

Oreskovic

(2009) [49]

USA

Urban &Rural

Cross-sectional

Census

21,008

Obesity

Children

2–18

7/9

64

Ortega Hinojosa

(2018) [48]

USA

-

Cross-sectional

-

5,265,265

Obesity

Children

8/9

65

Pearson

(2014) [140]

New Zealand

Urban &Rural

Cross-sectional

Random

12,488

Obesity

> 15

7/9

66

Pereira

(2013) [141]

Australia

-

Cross-sectional

Census

10,208

Weight status

> 16

8/9

67

Li(2022) [177]

China

Rural

cross-sectional

Census

8377

Obesity

≥ 18

7/9

68

Abbasi(2020) [15]

Iran

-

cross-sectional

cluster sampling

12,340

Blood Pressure

7–18

7/9

69

Thomas Astell-Burt(2016) [137]

Sydney, Australia.

-

-

Census

7272

Physical activity, Mental and Cardiometabolic health

45 ≤

-

70

Regina Grazuleviciene(2014) [88]

Lithuania

Urban

cross-sectional study

-

3,416 females

Blood Pressure

20–45

6/9

71

Sérgio Rodrigues Moreira(2013) [148]

Pernambuco State, Brazil.

Urban

-

-

500 adults

stress, high blood pressure, and high blood glucose

> 18

-

72

Iana Markevych(2014) [178]

Munich, Germany

-

cross-sectional study

-

2,078 children

Blood Pressure

10 years

7/9

73

Usama Bilal(2016) [179]

Spain

Urban

exploratory study

census

16,000

Electronic health records

Diabetes or Hypertension, Dyslipidemia, Obesity or smoking

≥ 45

7/9

74

H SusanJ Picavet(2016) [111]

Netherlands

Urban &Rural

prospective longitudinal study

an age-sex stratified sample

12,439

BMI/Diabetes/Blood pressure/CVD/Mental health

20–59

6/10

75

Bo-Yi Yang(2019) [14]

China

Urban

Cohort

randomly

24,845 adults

Blood pressure

18–74

8/10

76

Scott C. Brown(2016) [26]

USA

Urban &suburban

retrospective cohort

Census

249,405 Medicare beneficiaries

Diabetes/ Hypertension/ Hyperlipidemia

≥ 65

8/10

77

Catherine Paquet(2014) [139]

Australia

Urban

longitudinal biomedical cohort

randomly

3145 adults

(pre)Diabetes/ Hypertension/ Dyslipidemia/

Abdominal Obesity

≥ 18

7/10

78

Angel M. Dzhambov(2018) [16]

Austria

Urban &Rural

cross-sectional

randomly

555adults

Blood pressure

35–81

6/9

79

Esmée M Bijnens(2017) [12]

Belgium

-

Prospective

Cohort

-

278 twins

Blood pressure

18–25

7/9

80

Jie Jiang(2020) [13]

China

Rural

cross-sectional study

-

39,259

Blood pressure

18–79

7/9

81

Marcia P. Jimenez(2020) [17]

New England

-

longitudinal study

random intercepts for

each family and for each census tract

517

Blood pressure/BMI

birth (mean age = 1.60 months)

childhood (mean

age = 7.08 years)

adulthood (mean age = 44.41 years)

7/9

82

Ray Yeager(2018) [47]

University of Louisville

Urban &Rural

cross-sectional

-

408

Hypertension/ Hyperlipidemia/ Diabetes mellitus/

Current smoker

51.4 ± 10.8

8/9

83

Li(2022) [129]

China

-

cross-sectional

randomly

8383

Blood pressure

≥ 18

7/9

84

Ruijia Li (2021) [130]

China

Rural

Cohort

-

39,019

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

18–79

8/10

85

Annie Doubleday(2022) [83]

USA

Urban

prospective cohort

-

6814

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

45–84 years

9/10

86

LucíaRodriguez-Loureiro(2022) [180]

Belgium

Urban

longitudinal study

census

2,309,236

Diabetes mortality

40–79 years

7/9

87

Jiaqiang Liao(2019) [131]

China

Urban

Cohort

-

6807

Blood glucose levels

≤ 24

≥ 35

8/10

88

Anna Ponjoan(2022) [113]

Spain

Urban

retrospective cohort

-

41,463

Myocardial infarction in the population with diabetes

mean68.8 years

8/9

89

Roland Ngom(2016) [152]

Canada

Urban

cross-sectional

census

3,920,000

Cardiovascular morbidity and Diabetes

≥ 20

7/9

90

Soumya Mazumdar(2021) [144]

Australia

Urban

cohort

randomly

267,153

Type 2 Diabetes

≥ 45

7/10

91

Charlotte Clark(2017) [84]

Canada

Urban &Rural

cohort

-

380,738

Diabetes

45–85

8/10

92

Danielle H Bodicoat(2014) [114]

UK

Urban &Rural (Urban = 83.6

Rural = 16.4)

cross-sectional

random

10 476

Type 2 Diabetes

20–75

7/9

93

Alice M. Dalton(2016) [115]

UK

Urban &Rural (Urban = 46.9

Town and fringe = 20.7

Village = 23.6

Hamlet = 8.9)

cross sectional

-

23,865

Diabetes

39.5 -79.1

7/9

94

Shanley Chong (2019) [143]

Australia

Urban

Prospective cohort

random

60 404

Type 2 Diabetes

≥ 45

8/9

95

Thomas Astell-Burt(2014) [32]

Australia

Urban &Rural

-

random

267,072

Type 2 Diabetes

≥ 45

-

96

H.Lee(2015) [181]

Korea

Urban &suburban

Cross-sectional

-

16,178

Physical activity/ Hypertension and Diabetes

Mean age 47.50 ± 12.87

7/9

97

Dadvand (2018) [35]

Iran

Urban &Rural

Population base

Clustering

3844

Blood glucose

7–18

8/9

98

Shujun Fan (2020) [23]

China

Rural

cross-

sectional

stratified cluster random

4735

Blood lipids

≥ 18

8/9

99

Hye-Jin Kim (2016) [27]

Korean

-

cross-sectional

-

212,584

Hyperlipidemia

≥ 20

7/9

100

Hari S. Iyer(2020) [132]

Africa

Suburban &Urban&Rural

cross-sectional

-

1178

BMI/ diabetes/ hypertension/ cholesterol

Mean age 46.7

6/9

101

Jie Jiang(2021) [116]

China

Rural

cohort

multi-stage sampling

39,057

Dyslipidemia

mean age 55.6

7/10

102

Iana Markevych(2016) [133]

Germany

Urban

cohort

-

1,552

Blood lipids

10 and 15 years of age

7/10

103

Bo-Yi Yang(2019) [151]

China

Urban

cohort

four-

stage cluster random

15,477

Blood lipids

Mean age 44.97

9/10

104

Aliyas et al. (2018) [135]

Iran

Urban

Cross-sectional

random

978

Hypertension

≥ 65

8/9

105

Bauwelinck et al. (2020) [124]

Spain

Belgian

Urban

Cross-sectional

random

Barcelona

(n = 3400)

Brussels

(n = 2335)

Hypertension

≥ 15

7/9

106

Bloemsma et al. (2019) [20]

Holland

Urban & Rural

Cohort

census

2302

Hypertension

Adolescents aged 12 and 16

8/10

107

Braziene et al. (2019) [123]

Lithuania

Urban & suburban

Cohort

Census

739

Hypertension

35–64

8/10

108

de Keijzer et al. (2019) [122]

UK

Urban &Rural

Cohort

-

6076

Metabolic syndrome

45–69

9/10

109

Jendrossek et al. (2017) [21]

Germany

Urban &Rural

Cross-sectional

randomly

Wesel

(n = 1310)

Munich

(n = 1753)

Hypertension

-

7/9

110

Leng et al. (2020) [134]

China

Urban

Cross-sectional

-

4155

Hypertension(cardiovascular health)

≥ 60

8/9

111

Madhloum et al. (2019) [121]

Belgium

-

Cohort

-

769

Hypertension

Newborns

8/10

112

Plans et al. (2019) [120]

Spain

Urban

Cross-sectional

census

1625

Hypertension (Cardiovascular Risk Factors)

40–75

7/9

113

Poulsen et al. (2021) [87]

USA

Urban &Rural

Cross-sectional

-

9593

Blood Pressure

≥ 18

7/9

114

Ribeiro et al. (2019) [119]

Portugal

Urban &Rural (Predominantly urban = 97.4

Moderately urban = 2.4

Predominantly rural = 0.3)

Cross-sectional

random

3108

Hypertension

7-year-old children

8/9

115

Riggs et al. (2021) [86]

USA

-

Cross-sectional

-

73

Hypertension(cardiovascular disease risk)

23–84

6/9

116

Sarkar et al. (2018) [118]

UK

Urban

Cohort

random

429,334

Hypertension

38–73

8/10

117

Tamosiunas et al. (2014) [117]

Lithuania

Urban

Cohort

random

5112

Hypertension(cardiovascular health)

45–72

8/10

118

Ulmer et al. (2016) [85]

USA

Urban

Cross-sectional

study

-

4820

Hypertension

-

7/9