Fig. 3

Metformin reverses the Warburg effect in chronic AF. a Quantitative analysis of key fators of the Warburg effect including HIF-1α, GLUT-1, PDK-1, PDH, HK, and LDH. b Analysis of the production of atrial lactate. c Representative images of the protein expression. SR, sinus rhythm; AF: atrial fibrillation; MET, metformin; HIF-1α, hypoxia-inducible factor 1α; GLUT-1, glucose transporter-1; PDK-1, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1; PDH, pyruvate dehydrogenase; HK, hexokinase; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase. * P < 0.05 versus SR group; # P < 0.05 versus AF group; n = 6 per group