Table 1 Clinical characteristics of the study sample
Characteristics | Overall (n = 3009) | Female (n = 1007) | Male (n = 2002) | P Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Age, y | 48.6 ± 9.7 | 49.9 ± 9.9 | 48.0 ± 9.6 | <0.001 |
Education, n (%) | ||||
 Elementary school | 206 (6.9) | 135(13.4) | 71 (3.6) | <0.001 |
 High school | 1353 (45.0) | 538 (53.4) | 815 (40.7) |  |
 College or above | 1450 (48.2) | 334 (33.2) | 1116 (55.7) |  |
Body mass index, kg/m2 | 24.9 ± 3.3 | 23.5 ± 3.1 | 25.5 ± 3.2 | <0.001 |
Systolic blood pressure, mmHg | 128.3 ± 16.6 | 125.5 ± 18.5 | 129.7 ± 15.3 | <0.001 |
Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg | 81.3 ± 11.3 | 76.3 ± 11.0 | 83.6 ± 10.8 | <0.001 |
Hypertension, n (%) | 409 (13.6) | 125 (12.4) | 284 (14.2) | 0.195 |
Antihypertensive medication, n (%) | 373 (12.4) | 109 (10.8) | 264 (13.2) | 0.069 |
Fasting glucose, mmol/L | 5.4 ± 1.4 | 5.2 ± 1.0 | 5.5 ± 1.6 | <0.001 |
Diabetes mellitus, n (%) | 134 (4.5) | 22 (2.2) | 112 (5.6) | <0.001 |
Diabetes medication, n (%) | 111 (3.7) | 21 (2.1) | 90 (4.5) | <0.001 |
Total cholesterol, mmol/L | 5.2 ± 1.0 | 5.2 ± 1.0 | 5.2 ± 1.0 | 0.199 |
HDL-cholesterol, mmol/L | 1.4 ± 0.4 | 1.6 ± 0.4 | 1.3 ± 0.3 | <0.001 |
LDL-cholesterol, mmol/L | 2.9 ± 0.9 | 2.9 ± 0.9 | 2.9 ± 0.9 | 0.95 |
Lipid-lowering medication, n (%) | 47 (1.6) | 10 (1.0) | 37 (1.8) | 0.086 |
Cardiovascular health metrics | ||||
Ideal diet, n (%) | 102 (3.4) | 51 (5.1) | 51 (2.5) | 0.001 |
Ideal smoking status, n (%) | 1944 (64.6) | 978 (97.1) | 966 (48.3) | <0.001 |
Ideal physical activity, n (%) | 339 (11.3) | 112 (11.1) | 227 (11.3) | 0.859 |
Ideal BMI, n (%) | 1591 (52.9) | 726 (72.1) | 865 (43.2) | <0.001 |
Ideal Blood pressure, n (%) | 797 (26.5) | 391 (38.8) | 406 (20.3) | <0.001 |
Ideal Total cholesterol, n (%) | 1472 (48.9) | 517 (51.3) | 955 (47.7) | 0.060 |
Ideal Fasting glucose, n (%) | 2258 (75.0) | 826 (82.0) | 1432 (71.5) | <0.001 |
Ideal CVH score | 2.8 ± 1.3 | 3.6 ± 1.2 | 2.5 ± 1.2 | <0.001 |
Subclinical biomarkers, median (Q1, Q3) | ||||
Homocysteine, μmol/L | 9.4 (7.6, 11.6) | 7.8 (6.3, 9.3) | 10.4(8.6, 12.5) | <0.001 |
C-reactive protein, mg/L | 1.5 (0.8, 2.6) | 1.3 (0.7, 2.4) | 1.6 (0.8, 2.7) | <0.001 |
Microalbuminuria, mg/L | 9.5 (5.3, 16.8) | 7.0 (4.0, 13.0) | 11.0 (6.0, 18.0) | 0.005 |
Subclinical disease markers | ||||
1. Increased CIMT, n (%) | 422 (14.0) | 118 (11.7) | 30 (15.2) | 0.010 |
2. Presence of carotid plaque, n (%) | 805 (26.8) | 250 (24.8) | 555 (27.7) | 0.097 |
3. LV hypertrophy by ECG/Echocardiography | ||||
 LV hypertrophy by ECG (Sokolow-Lyon criteria), n (%) | 132 (4.4) | 18(1.8) | 114(5.7) | <0.001 |
 LV mass-to-BSA ratio, g/m2 | 92.4 ± 18.2 | 77.8 ± 14.2 | 99.7 ± 15.3 | <0.001 |
 LV hypertrophy by Echocardiography, n (%) | 341 (11.3) | 84 (8.3) | 257 (12.8) | <0.001 |
LV hypertrophy by ECG or Echocardiography, n (%) | 453 (15.1) | 100 (1.0) | 353(17.6) | <0.001 |
4. LV systolic dysfunction by echocardiography | ||||
 Fractional shortening | 0.37 ± 0.04 | 0.38 ± 0.04 | 0.37 ± 0.04 | <0.001 |
 LV systolic dysfunction, n (%) | 63 (2.1) | 11 (1.1) | 52 (2.6) | <0.001 |
5. Peripheral arterial disease by ABI | ||||
 ABI ≤ 0.9, n (%) | 35 (1.2) | 19 (1.9) | 16 (0.8) | 0.011 |
Composite of subclinical disease markers | ||||
 At least 1, n (%) | 1339 (44.5) | 377 (37.4) | 962 (48.1) | <0.001 |
 At least 2, n (%) | 383 (12.7) | 105 (10.4) | 278 (13.9) |  |
  ≥ 3, n (%) | 56 (1.9) | 16 (1.6) | 40 (2.0) |  |
 Mean score | 0.59 ± 0.76 | 0.49 ± 0.72 | 0.64 ± 0.77 | <0.001 |